Freedom of Speech in the Philippines Essay

Freedom of speech is the concept of the inherent human right to voice one’s opinion publicly without fear of censorship or punishment. â€Å"Speech† is not limited to public speaking and is generally taken to include other forms of expression. The right is preserved in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and is granted formal recognition by the laws of most nations. Nonetheless the degree to which the right is upheld in practice varies greatly from one nation to another. In many nations, particularly those with relatively authoritarian forms of government, overt government censorship is enforced. Censorship has also been claimed to occur in other forms (see propaganda model) and there are different approaches to issues such as hate speech, obscenity, and defamation laws even in countries seen as liberal democracies. Article III Section 4 of the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines specifies that no law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech or of expression. Some laws inconsistent with a broad application of this mandate are in force, however.[29] For example Certain sections of the Flag and Heraldic Code require particular expressions and prohibit other expressions Title thirteen of the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines criminalizes libel and slander by act or deed (slander by deed is defined as â€Å"any act †¦ which shall cast dishonor, discredit or contempt upon another person.†), providing penalties of fine or imprisonment. In 2012, acting on a complaint by an imprisoned broadcaster who dramatised a newspaper account reporting that a particular politician was seen running naked in a hotel when caught in bed by the husband of the woman with whom he was said to have spent the night, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights ruled that the criminalization of libel violates freedom of expression and is inconsistent with Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, commenting that â€Å"Defamations laws should not †¦ stifle freedom of expression† and that â€Å"Penal defamation laws should include defense of truth.† ************************************************************************* â€Å"If we don’t believe in freedom of expression for people we despise, we don’t believe in it at all.† – Noam Chomsky The freedom to express our thoughts is an important part of our individual identity. When we talk and write about our opinions we are contributing ideas and participating in society. Freedom of expression is covered in article 19 of the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights: â€Å"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers†. Freedom of expression is widely acknowledged as a basic human right that should be available to all, playing a crucial role in a fair and open society. Many countries and organizations place limits on freedom of expression. These limitations can be a way of controlling people. Restricting voting rights, censoring speech and art and outlawing specific religious and political groups are some of the tools governments have used to control public opposition. Even societies that consider themselves free and democratic suppress opposing views. Consider your local newspaper; although you might expect objectivity, if you were to analyze the content, you might not find a variety of informed opinions and critiques. Editorial and news writers may be influenced by their own political views. In some places, reporters are trained to manipulate or omit information that could harm those in power. Should there be no limits on freedom of expression? If we are entitled to express ourselves freely we must accept that others will express ideas very different from our own. This might include ideas that offend and possibly even hurt us. Hate speech attacks people based upon such distinctions as race, religion and gender. Should we censor ideas that damage and promote cruelty? The content of a book, a song or a film may cross societal lines of morality and decency. Should we censor art works that are violent, insulting or degrading? These are some of the complex questions you must think about. Feeling intimidated and forced to subscribe to traditional or mainstream beliefs is a violation of your personal freedom. But sometimes authorities set rules and boundaries for good reason. Understanding why the rules exist is more important than automatically obeying them. ***************************************************************************** Cybercrimes and Freedom of Expression Despite the view of the United Nations Committee on Human Rights that Philippine criminal libel is contrary to Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) on freedom of expression, Congress and President Benigno Aquino III still enacted the Cybercrime Prevention Law which, among other things, added electronic libel as a new criminal offense. Worse, this new law increased the penalty for cyber libel to prison mayor from the current prison correctional provided under the Revised Penal Code. This means that electronic libel is now punished with imprisonment from six years and one day to up to 12 years, while those convicted for ordinary libel under the RPC are subject to imprisonment only from six months and one day to four years and two months. And because parole, a means by which a convict may be spared from actual imprisonment may be granted only to those sentenced to serve a prison term for no more than six months and one day, anyone convicted for cyber libel will inevitably serve a prison term. Since the Philippines leads the rest of the world in terms of Facebook and Twitter usage, this means that unlike ordinary libel complaints which are oftentimes brought against printed newspapers -given the element of publication, any user of these leading social media tools is now liable for prosecution. The fact that an allegedly libelous writing appeared on the Internet is already sufficient to prove the element of publication. The new Cybercrime law is an outright defiance of the UN Human Rights Committee View in the case of Alexander Adonis vs. Republic of the Philippines. In that View, the UNHRC declared that Philippine libel law under the RPC contravenes freedom of expression on two counts: one, it is a disproportionate means by which to achieve its avowed goal of protecting the privacy of private persons; and two, because there is an alternative in the form of civil libel, or the payment of damages. The UN HCR also took the view that our libel in the Philippines, because it does not recognize truth as a defense, is additionally defective on this ground. While the View of the UNHRC is this instance is non-binding, the Philippines nonetheless is under an obligation to heed it because of the maxim â€Å"pacta sundt servanda†, or that treaty obligations must be complied with in good faith. The UN Human Rights Committee Views, since the membership of the body consist of leading experts in human rights, are accepted as authoritative on the issue of states compliance with their obligations under the ICCPR. Simply put, the view against our libel law is very strong evidence of breach of a state obligation under the ICCPR And instead of heeding the UN’s call to review its existing libel law, Congress and President Aquino appeared to have slammed the body by enacting an even more draconian legislation against cyber libel. Our constitutional commitment to freedom of expression has long been recognized. Justice Holmes, for instance, wrote: â€Å"When men have realized that time has upset many fighting faiths, they may come to believe even more than they believe the very foundations of their own conduct that the ultimate good desired is better reached by free trade in ideas — that the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market . . . .† The commitment exists because it is only through freedom of expression that we are able to discern the truth and able to fiscalize despotic regimes: â€Å"The freedom to speak one’s mind is not only an aspect of individual liberty—and thus a good unto itself—but also is essential to the common quest for truth and the vitality of society as a whole. We have therefore been particularly vigilant to ensure that individual expressions of ideas remain free from governmentally imposed sanctions. By criminalizing internet libel, government expanded the infringement of freedom of expression even to the realm that has enabled us to give life to the principle of a free market place of ideas- the internet. Prior to this law, it is ironic that the Philippines was even cited by the United Nations for not interfering with the internet. The law is a testament to the reality that despite the overwhelming mandate given to this administration, coupled with its unprecedented public approval ratings, it continues to be insecure and unable to compete in the market place of ideas. We will see the Aquino administration in court on this one. And we will prevail. For unlike other laws that enjoy the presumption of regularity, this cybercrime law, insofar as it infringes on freedom of expression, will come to court with a very heavy presumption of unconstitutionality. There can be nothing sadder than suing the son of icons of democracy for infringement into a cherished right. ************************************************************************* IMPORTANCE OF FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION Article 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) guarantees the right to freedom of expression in the following terms: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes the right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. The UDHR, as a UN General Assembly resolution, is not directly binding on States. However, parts of it, including Article 19, are widely regarded as having acquired legal force as customary international law since its adoption in 1948. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), a treaty ratified by over 150 States, including the Philippines, imposes formal legal obligations on State Parties to respect its provisions and elaborates on many of the rights included in the UDHR. Article 19 of the ICCPR guarantees the right to freedom of expression in terms very similar to those found at Article 19 of the UDHR: 1. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of opinion. 2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art or through any other media of his choice. Freedom of expression is also protected in all three regional human rights instruments, by Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. The right to freedom of expression enjoys a prominent status in each of these regional conventions and, although the Philippines cannot be a party to them, the judgments and decisions issued by courts under these regional mechanisms, offer an authoritative interpretation of freedom of expression principles in various different contexts. Freedom of expression is a key human right, in particular because of its fundamental role in underpinning democracy. At its very first session, in 1946, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 59(I) which states: â€Å"Freedom of information is a fundamental human right and †¦ the touchstone of all the freedoms to which the United Nations is consecrated.† As the UN Human Rights Committee has said: â€Å"The right to freedom of expression is of paramount importance in any democratic society.† RESTRICTIONS OF FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION The right to freedom of expression is not absolute; both international law and most national constitutions recognise that it may be restricted. However, any limitations must remain within strictly defined parameters. Article 19(3) of the ICCPR lays down the conditions which any restriction on freedom of expression must meet: The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; (b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals. A similar formulation can be found in the European, American and African regional human rights treaties. These have been interpreted as requiring restrictions to meet a strict three-part test. International jurisprudence makes it clear that this test presents a high standard which any interference must overcome. The European Court of Human Rights has stated: â€Å"Freedom of expression †¦ is subject to a number of exceptions which, however, must be narrowly interpreted and the necessity for any restrictions must be convincingly established.† First, the interference must be provided for by law. This requirement will be fulfilled only where the law is accessible and ‘formulated with sufficient precision to enable the citizen to regulate his conduct’. Second, the interference must pursue a legitimate aim. The list of aims in Article 19(3) of the ICCPR is exclusive in the sense that no other aims are considered to be legitimate as grounds for restricting freedom of expression. Third, the restriction must be necessary to secure one of those aims. The word â€Å"necessary† means that there must be a â€Å"pressing social need† for the restriction. The reasons given by the State to justify the restriction must be â€Å"relevant and sufficient† and the restriction must be proportionate to the aim pursued. The Constitution of the Philippines, however, does not explicitly provide for restrictions to the right to freedom of expression. The only restriction to the rights to expression and information and press freedom is encapsulated in the provision on the right to privacy. Article III, Sections 3 of the Constitution states: (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise as prescribed by law. (2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible for any purpose in any proceeding. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION IN THE MEDIA The guarantee of freedom of expression applies with particular force to the media, including the broadcast media and public service broadcasters. The European Court of Human Rights, for example, has consistently emphasised the â€Å"pre-eminent role of the press in a State governed by the rule of law†. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has stated: â€Å"It is the mass media that make the exercise of freedom of expression a reality.† Media as a whole merit special protection, in part because of their role in making public ‘information and ideas on matters of public interest. Not only does [the press] have the task of imparting such information and ideas: the public also has a right to receive them. Were it otherwise, the press would be unable to play its vital role of â€Å"public watchdog†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. It may be noted that the obligation to respect freedom of expression lies with States, not with the media per se. However, this obligation does apply to publicly-funded broadcasters. Because of their link to the State, these broadcasters are directly bound by international guarantees of human rights. In addition, publicly-funded broadcasters are in a special position to satisfy the public’s right to know and to guarantee pluralism and access, and it is therefore particularly important that they promote these rights.

To what extent was there political and economic reform in the years 1906-1916?

To what extent was there political and economic reform in the years 1906-1916? In the years 1906-1916 there was some economic reform made my Stolypin and some political reform made by the four Dumas. Stolypin made his land reforms and other agricultural reforms in order to improve agriculture and increase production. However he was not majorly successful in constructing economic reforms to improve conditions in cities. The tsar had allowed an elected legislative assembly (Duma) which was in place for the first time.However the concessions the tsar made in the October manifesto after the 1905 revolution were expedients rather than real reforms. The Duma did not become a limitation on the tsar’s autocratic powers. This essay will look at both the extent to which there was political and economic reform in the years 1906-1916 by referring to Stolypin’s reforms, the strengths and weaknesses of the Duma, as well as the government’s involvement in political and economic reform. Stolypin was one factor which contributed to the economic reform in the years 1906-1916.Stolypin made reforms which contributed in modernising Russian agriculture and making it more productive. For example he passed a law that made it easier for peasants to break away from communes, allowing them to move freely around Russia. The peasants’ land bank was also promoted by Stolypin to give more loans to peasants and hence encourage them to move to the undeveloped agricultural areas of Siberia with the incentive of cheap land financed by the government loans. Stolypin’s reforms meant that increasing the number of peasants landowners who farmed more efficiently would lead to fewer Russian peasants being needed to farm land.They then had to move to the cities to gain employment, which helped in meeting the increasing demand for workers in cities. It could be argued that his land reforms were a success as in 1905, 20 per cent of peasants owned land which by 1915 incr eased to 50 per cent. Agricultural production had also increased from 45. 9 million tonnes in 1906 to 61. 7 million tonnes in 1913. These figures illustrate that the reforms he introduced had an enormous impact in the improvement of agriculture and production suggesting that Stolypin had made significant reforms and the years 1906-1916 were a period of major economic reform.However on the other hand it could be argued that Stolypins ideas were not as helpful in economic reform as although he had helped in agricultural production; he had done little to improve the cities. For example industries where most of the profit is generated were not developed and even thought he had helped peasants and brought great changes to the Russian countryside, he had not done much to improve living and working conditions of Russia’s industrial workers suggesting that there were little economic reforms in 1906-1916.With limited industrialisation Russia could not supply its self with all the requ ired goods and could not export goods and products to different countries hence their balance of payments and economic state was affected negatively; conveying that there was restricted economic reform in 1906-1916. The four Dumas from 1906- 1917 were a factor which contributed to the political reform in Russia in the years 1906-1916. In 1906 there was an elected legislative assembly (The first Duma) for the first time.All Dumas throughout the period questioned ministers and some were critics of the tsarist system. The amount of laws they were able to pass were limited, but the Dumas could be seen as a huge political reform as before 1906 there was no any form of democratic parliament but rather only the tsar ruled Russia. No one ever dared to question the tsarist system, but there was now a huge improvement and a step forward to what the people of Russia wanted a democratic power.However The Dumas were simply allowed by the tsar to give the appearance of a democratic government and so were not so significant in political reform in 1906-1916. The Dumas were very limited in their actions and the laws they could pass, as they had to be agreed by the tsar. For example the first Duma in 1906 had 319 requests of Laws but only 2 were passed. The tsars ‘Fundamental Laws’ hugely limited the powers of the Dumas and portrayed that things had still not changed majorly, the tsar was still the ruler of Russia and made the main decisions of running the country.This is further intensified by the fact that the tsar had dismissed the first two Dumas in 1906 and 1907 as they were strong critics of the tsarist system and voiced their anger as the ‘Supreme Autocratic Power’ still belonged to the tsar. This contrasts with the 3rd and 4rth Dumas which were kept for longer as were less critics of the tsarist system and were rather supportive. This clearly illustrates that there was limited political reform in 1906-1916 as the tsar was still the main ruler o f Russia and the Dumas were still not able to pass on laws which would improve the state of Russia.Finally although the policies of Stolypin and the introduction of the Duma were important advances, they were not enough to end the tsarist system or make significant political and economic reforms. There was very little political and economic reform in 1906-1916 which was partly because of the tsarist system, but also because of the tsars and governments resistance to make reforms. The government, the Dumas and the tsar also did not cooperate with each other to make changes but rather had their own interests, leading to the obstruction of reform.

History of civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

History of civilization - Essay Example The predominance that is seen to characterize western civilization across the world is seen to be relatively unprecedented largely due to the fact that although many civilizations emerged before the European civilization and actually managed to radiate their influence far beyond the borders of their original homeland, these civilizations had nevertheless not managed to cast and sustain their predominance right around the globe. The successes of the European civilization are seen to be made all the more apparent when they are compared to those of some of the other civilizations that emerged before it. While these civilizations did manage to expand, they were however unable to attain global dominance. The Islam civilization for instance managed to expand from its origins in the Middle East to Affect Central Africa and Asia, it also managed to expand to the Pacific coasts of East Indies and the Atlantic Coast of Morocco, however, it was unable to obtain any permanent foothold in Europe as a result of religious opposition, in addition to this, Islamic civilization never having crossed the Atlantic to venture into the New World as it did not have access to the appropriate navigational sciences and technology to be able to accomplish this. The Eastern orthodox Christendom civilization on the other hand initially grew up in mediaeval Byzantium and was successfully carried to the Pacific by the Russians but it eve ntually succumbed to Western social and religious influences by the close of the 17th century that were not in support of Western Christianity. The ancient civilizations of Rome and Greece managed to extend their own political influence into Northern Europe where the Roman Empire is seen to have brought artistic inspiration to the Far East and India. While the Ancient India civilization manage to radiate her commerce, art and relation into the East Indies and Far East, it was however not able to successfully

Discussion for online Business Ethics class - Week 3 Essay

Discussion for online Business Ethics class - Week 3 - Essay Example e equal on social and economic grounds, even then there will remain a perceptual dissatisfaction due to human’s nature to look beyond what he is today and thus strive for more, than what others have. Thus social democratic societies cannot achieve happiness. However, Kelly believes that happiness comes from exercising freedom. He calls the corporation of today as the government of the propertied class, a concept similar to plutocracy and timocracy where privileged class dictates the terms and thus few is the number of happy people. Therefore in order to bring happiness amongst the society, it is necessary to bring happiness amongst masses which can be brought by ending the rule of the elite, and the introducing the measures that shall also use the growth of other stakeholder’s such as employees to indicate the growth of the corporations. Kelly has distinguished a corporation from its stockholders. The role of corporation is not to maximize profits only but to also address the issues of the corporate stakeholders that also include employees, customers, suppliers, creditors etc. Thus instead of focusing on the shareholders only which it does by perceiving each and everything from his eye only, it shall also focus on the well being of its other stakeholders too by increasing wages and funding healthy environment for instance. While Novak’s perception is optimistic about corporations, Kelly views it pessimistically. Novak believes that corporations have been wrongly blamed to have ignored morality and promoted only that, which has been useful to them but he agrees that corporations do have the elements of aristocracy. On the other hand Kelly believes that the corporations have wrongly assumed the role of exercising the desires of the elite, it has to do more than maximizing the profits of its shareholders. Therefore, instead of competing on the wealth of the shareholders, the corporations need to compete on wider basis such as raising the standards of the

Personal Mission Statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personal Mission Statement - Essay Example The template includes my understanding of proper adult and learning development. I will put to good use the personal and professional growth theories, as I leave my alma mater. The template includes all relevant inputs. I will include the teachings of Covey (204) in my lifelong template. The template of effective strategies teaches me how to maximize all my God-given powers to gather all necessary knowledge to help the community have a better life. I will also keep to mind the necessary skills needed to make a favorable difference in this world. I will also generate the desire to give my own small but effective contribution to share my blessing with the less fortunate citizens of this world. In addition, I will to have an open mind to learn new things that will hasten the effects of my contributing to the betterment of society. I will be proactive. Being proactive means to implement an act or nonact that will prevent the cropping up a debilitating disaster or unfavorable event. I wil l also learn to put first things first. I will replace sitting all day long and devote more time to activities that will hasten the accomplishment of may goals in life. Time is short, and the average person’s earthly journey is too short to make a positive impact on the other people’s lives. I will also implement activities to ensure my missionary race will create and prolong true happiness, hope, faith, and love in every gathering that I will join. I was put in this world to make a difference. With God guiding my path along my missionary path, I will bravely, boldly and enthusiastically finish my predestined part in this complex Shakespearean type of play called life flying colors. I have my happy moments. I always feel happy when I see the smiling faces of my toddler after a tiring and stressful day’s activities. Joy feels the air when I see my beautiful daughters, God’s gift to me. Further, my happy moments continue as through my

Personality and Time Perception Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Personality and Time Perception - Essay Example Stress-depleted attention processes become focused on task relevant activities and attention to time-based cues is inhibited, that distorts perceptions of time-in-passing and for time recollection in memory (Hancock & Weaver, 2005). Time perception with regard to personality traits has had some investigation, initiated by Eysenck's interest in the study of personality. Eysenck determined that two pre-dominant personality factors existed; the tendency to experience negative emotions (Neuroticism [N]); and the tendency to enjoy positive events (Extroversion [E]). E and N provided a 2-dimensional space to describe individual differences in behavior, very similar to the longitude and latitude coordinates on a global map. Eysenck's strength was to construct a model that detailed the causes of personality (Eysenck, 1970). He suggested that extraversion was the result of variability in cortical arousal; and that introverts tended to have higher levels of activity as compared to extraverts, and were inherently more cortically aroused than extraverts (Hancock & Weaver, 2005). This at first may appears counterintuitive, only that the solitary behavior of introverts seeks to dampen cortical stimulation, whereas the extravert seeks to heighten their levels of stimulation though impulsiveness and openness to experience. These patterns of behavior can be predicted using the Yerkes-Dodson Law (i.e., an empirical relationship between arousal and performance). So that performance increases with cognitive arousal but only to a certain pointl, when levels of arousal become too high, performance will decrease. There appears to be an optimal level of arousal for any given task (Twenge, Catanese, & Baumeister, 2003).One study that investigated Eysenck's personality dimensions and perceptions of time used the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R) and two temporal discrimination tasks. It was found that participant accuracy in the timing of brief intervals was unrelated to EPQ-R scores. And that accuracy of timing for longer intervals between 1-2 seconds was found to be significantly associated with the personality dimension of psychoticism (P), an introvert trait (Lienert & Rammsayer, 1998). Overall, introverts defined as low-P performed the most poorly of all the EPQ-R categories.Clearly, there is limited literature available that investigates correlations between time perception and the personality trait Extroversion. This is a fault, as time perception dysfunctions have been related to impulsiveness and anti-social behaviors. The concept of impulsivity was stated by Eysenck to be a facet of extraversion (Eysenck, 1970). It appears that the cognitive tempo, or internal clocks, of the "impulsive" individual may run faster than those deemed "non-impulsive." Sp that the impulsive person is more likely to overestimate and underproduce time intervals (Hancock & Weaver, 2005). Contemporary literature generally considers impulsivity to be a trait in its own right that is highly correlated with extraversion.Patients diagnosed with orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) damage have exhibited impulsive behavior as well as showing deficits in time perception. Further, damage to the OFC has been related to dis-inhibition or socially inappropriate behavior and emotional patterns (Berlin, Rolls, & Kischka, 2004). Hence, there

Reason for Academic Dismissal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reason for Academic Dismissal - Essay Example With this in mind things started getting out of my control. I was busy with other stuff in life instead of concentrating on my studies. Now after the terrifying experience of being out of college I've set my priorities and set aside my problems. I have been a good student with full concentration when I joined and I will again get my grades as high as my hopes were at the time I joined this prestigious college. I hope you would consider my appeal as 'He who opens a school door, closes a prison (Victor Hugo). I assure you my circumstances were beyond my control. Now, I have had the courage to leave that company. I have been studying hard all this time with the hope that my appeal would be considered and I'll be a source of pride for my College and my parents. Another strategy to improve my grades is that I have improved my living and study habits. I wake up early in the morning and go for a long walk. After that I exercise and with that I take a huge glass of juice. With that done I have a fresh mind and start studying as school timings with a few minutes break as well so that I don't lose my concentration and think of fun again. My friends are now those people who work hard to achieve success in life. I have realised that only play and no studies is not a good theory of spending life.

SWOT Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

SWOT Analysis - Research Paper Example This practice aids the firm to ensure that its efforts bring positive results to the desired areas. In other words, combined operation would assist the firm to deliver quality care services to its clients. Camelot is located at Staten Island in New York City and the organization has counseling programs throughout the five boroughs of the New York City. The current location is a major internal strength to the organization since New York City is an important drug destination and distribution center in the United States (NC Buy). Excellent customer service also adds to the firm’s performance efficiency. It is the main reason why majority of the New York population primarily tend to opt Camelot’s services. Weaknesses Higher employee turnover rate is the most challenging weakness of the company. The employee turnover is often a costly process since the company needs to make some additional investments to train a newly appointed employee. The time taken for the employee repla cement process would adversely affect the organizational productivity. Furthermore, the increased rate of employee turnover may adversely affect the corporate image of Camelot. The issue would cause the organization to lose continuity in its proposed programs. Similarly, it seems that the organization does not hire from within the firms and this strategy in turn incurs the operating expenses of Camelot. Furthermore, this practice prevents the firm from obtaining experienced employees. Lack of employee incentive is another weakness of the Camelot Counseling Centers; and this weakness often leads to employee turnover. In addition, it negatively affects employee motivation and thereby organizational productivity. Finally, since the organization does not have sufficient funds to purchase up to date equipments for employees, it seriously impinge on the operational efficiency of the Camelot. Under such circumstances, employees may be forced to work with improper equipments. Evidently, thi s situation often affects the quality of the services delivered. Opportunities The Camelot Counseling Centers is the only one treatment facility in the New York City that offers assistance to teenagers in their problems associated with drugs and education. In addition, there are only a few providers in the City that offer residential treatment facilities. The US official data indicate that substance abuse is becoming a threatening issue in the country, especially in megalopolis cities like New York. Hence, the city’s lifestyle offers certain potential opportunities to the organization. Another opportunity for the company is that it possesses experienced teachers and counselors on every site. This facility helps the company to extend its services to each and every corner of the city with no time lag. Studies have pointed that a drug addicted person needs continuous support until he is completely recovered from addition.. Since the organization has counselors on site, they can more closely work with the clients. Since the lab suppliers charge the same price for private insurance and Medicaid, clients can obtain improved services from Camelot at a fairly low cost. This advantage may attract more clients to the organization. Threats Recently, the Camelot Counseling Centers are losing their customers to competitors including Drug Rehab & Alcohol Addiction Treatment New York and New York City Rehab Center. Over the past few years, the organization

Midterm Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Midterm - Research Paper Example In this latter particular then, I seem to have slightly the advantage of him.’ Socrates’ argument is therefore that knowledge is not about believing that one knows something, but instead about knowing that one, in fact, cannot know. Socrates is driven to those said to be wise, because he wants to consider the word of God. On this quest, Socrates finds that ‘I found that the men most in repute were all but the most foolish; and that others less esteemed were really wiser and better.’ Socrates will then go on to explain this apparent paradox. His argument is based around the idea that believing one has knowledge cheats one out of actually having knowledge. The only true posit of knowledge, in Socrates’ argument is God himself. So, following Socrates’ argument, God himself knows that his wisdom means nothing, which is precisely what makes him so wise. Socrates returns to the argument over knowledge later in the Apology at which point he discusses fear of death. He argues that this, rather than making a man wiser, fearing death shows a pretence of wisdom, because death is unknown and an unknown thing cannot be known and therefore feared. Man does not know if death is a terrible thing or not and it is therefore illogical to fear it. Following on from this logic, Socrates cannot know if his beliefs are true, because wisdom dictates that no knowledge is regarded as certain. Socrates’ discussion of knowledge in the Apology is an interesting one, since it centres on the idea that nothing can be truly known. It subverts the common view that a lot of knowledge is synonymous with wisdom and replaces it with the idea that wisdom is the having the openness of mind to understand that any amount of knowledge is never a lot. In the Republic, Plato reports Socrates’ notions on ethics, connected with idea of justice. These ideas are related to the debate over epistemology in the Apology since they rely

Cradle to Cradle Essay Example for Free

Cradle to Cradle Essay In this book the authors and environmentalists William McDonough and Michael Braungart discuss how very un-eco friendly are the people that design our world, from our buildings to the products we use and consume. They talk about how our solutions for our environmental problems, such as recycling, are basically just a band-aid fix for broken bone. They discuss the negative effects that our daily lives have on our environment and offer some solutions of their own to help counteract the problem as much as possible, even the book Cradle to Cradle is printed on eco-friendly paper that does not use trees. In this book McDonough and Braungart urge its readers to take our environment into account and look for better solutions to our global environmental problems then the ones that we have been settling for for the last half-century. In this book McDonough and Braungart identify two major problems with the way that we live that negatively affects our environment. The first is the problem of throwing things away, because in fact when we throw things away, they do not just go away. The things that we throw out stay here on our Earth, soiling our precious and finite earth and affect its well-being. The second problem that they discuss the the harmful product that are used, which not only have negative impacts on our planet, but also on ourselves. In this book the authors urge us to learn from nature through bio-mimicry, an effort to design buildings like trees, cities like forests. They also challenge us to look at ants and the role they play in the world and their self-sustaining way of life and to learn from them. Ants are able to inhabit a diverse a range of environments, are able to hunt, scavenge, and grow their own food, build their homes, effectively handle their wastes, create powerful medicines, and produce biological and chemical weapons, all the while contributing to the health of the natural world. We live on this earth less-effectively than ants and should look to their way of living as a role model for how we as humans live on this earth. McDonough and Braungart offer some of their own suggestions for way that we can live effectively with the Earth in mind, such as rooftops covered with soil and plants that serve as natural insulation, non toxic dyes and fabrics, their current overhaul of Fords legendary River Rouge factory, and even the book itself, which is printed on a synthetic paper that does not use trees. While creating an ultimate solution to our environmental problem is a very involved and complicated ordeal, McDonough and Braungart do offer some simple solutions to help cut down on the harm we are causing our planet. One things that we can do is to cut out all chemicals and substances that are harmful and destructive both to humans as well as the environment. Also they discuss how we must abandon our current cradle to grave way of thinking and adopt a cradle to cradle way of thinking, meaning that we need to consider where the products and its packaging will end up after we are finished with it. When creating a product we need to begin to understand and think about where it will end up after the consumer is done with it. We must think about how our waste can be reused in order to cut back on unnecessary waste and contamination of our planet. McDonough and Braungart in this book urge us to start looking at our wasteful ways and see how it is harming our own selves as well as the environment and see that we must adopt a cradle to cradle way of thinking in order to save our planet and use the finite resources we have in a smart and truly eco friendly way. After reading this book I examined the wasteful way in which I live my own life, and when I think about how I live and times that by 6,973,738,433, it’s hard to fathom how much damage we must be doing to our planet. Our resource, clean air and precious earth are limited but humans are consumers and don’t consider much past our own immediate wants and needs. After reading this book I see how important it is to move away from cradle to grave thinking and truly take on a cradle to cradle way of thinking and see the long term effects of our consumerism. This book should be read by everyone because it gives a clear and simple way to see how we are living now, and then how we should be living in order to help save and protect the planet that we have been given.

Legislation Of Health And Safety Construction Essay

Legislation Of Health And Safety Construction Essay This report provides a brief overview of the legislation, which sets out the duties imposed on everyone at workplaces.This outlines the responsibilities of every person at the workplace, the consultative framework, the requirements for reporting injuries and dangerous occurrences, the use of codes of practice, how the legislation is administered. One important principle underlying the legislation is that by bringing all parties in the workplace into consultative and decision-making processes, there will be greater commitment to workplace health and safety. INTRODUCTION Health and safety all about is keeping people from costing harmed by work or turning ill by taking the correct precautions or safeguard and supplying a satisfactory working environment. A risk assessment or judgment is nothing more than a proper way of examination of what reason behind safety of worker in danger and cause harm to work. Risk assessment/judgment should be a practical workout, directed at getting the right way of controls of safety in place keep it simple and set the outcomes into practice [HSE : 2001]. Steps include in risk assessment Make systems for implementing the health and safety assesses identified as necessity by the risk assessment; Put up emergency processes; Offer clear information and training to employees; Guidance in particular to the health and safety troubles of an industry or of a particular procedure applied in a number of industries. The important functions of guidance are: To understand serving people to realized what the law says and provide for instance how demands based on EC Directives meet with those beneath the Health and Safety at Work Act; To aid people follow with the law; To establish technical proposal. Figure Overall safety scheme HAZARDS A health hazard is any chemical or biological substance or physical stressor that causes or aggravates illness in humans. Chemical health hazards occur in many different forms. They can be liquids, such as benzene; solids, such as silica dust; or gases, such as hydrogen sulfide. Normally, it is much easier to determine the cause of an injury on the job than it is an illness due to the following reasons: The chemical substance causing the disease may be odorless or invisible. Symptoms may be mistaken for common non-occupational illnesses. Diseases may not become apparent until many years after the exposure to a hazardous substance. 2.1 Routes of Entry Chemical health hazards can enter the body in different ways: Inhalation from the lungs into the blood stream. Absorption through the skin into the blood stream. Ingestion through digestive tract into the blood stream. 2.2 Types of Hazard Controls Engineering Controls Engineering controls, which involve changes in a machine, work process, chemical, or a building that eliminate or reduce exposure to health hazards are recommended by OSHA as the best method to control hazards. Administrative Controls Administrative controls are used to reduce the number of workers who are exposed to a hazard or to distribute the exposure among more workers so that each workers exposure is less. Administrative controls do not eliminate or reduce the amount of the hazard in the workplace. Personal Protective Equipment Personal protective equipment does reduce exposure to hazards but it is the least desirable protection because it may be uncomfortable, used improperly, or fit poorly. 2.3 Type of Hazards Slips or trips The slip or trip at work in almost all kind of businesses activities or work place cause many serious injurious such as food and catering. Falls from a height Falls from ladders results serious harm to people and to protect falls from height, the work is planned or designed and conveyed out by capable people and adopt the hierarchy for managing and dealing with risks. Fire and explosion Each year many peoples health and safety in danger because of the flammable materials present at workplace or they work with it like heating fuel(LPG gas), Petrol, Paint thinners and during wielding gas used. Musculoskeletal disorders Manual (or mechanical) carrying or moving or delivering or working with loads by hand or using bodily force or power . Noise High levels or degrees echo of noise at work can probably cause hearing damage deafness to both age group young and old. Electricity Electricity can cause non-fatal shocks, falls from ladders caused by contact with overhead or underground power cables. Poor electrical installations or facilities and faulty or defective electrical gadgets can lead to huge fires and sometimes blast result in death or danger to safety and health to others. Radiation Different kinds of radiation harmful and very dangers to human and environment like UV radiation, Laser, X-ray. First aid and accident reporting First aid means emergency care given before regular medical  aid can be obtained. It basically involve treating any physical damage to the body caused at work and giving immediate care to more serious and of great consequence casualties before the medical help are obtainable. Through with this at the beginning management of injury or damage suffered at work, lives can be saved and minor injuries prevented from turning into major ones[ Work cover: ISBN 978 1 ]. Reporting accidents and ill health of worker at workplace is a legal demand. LEGISLATION There are certain mass of legislation are provided and come year by year for the safety and health of worker at workplace. We discuss some important Laws available [HSE: 2001]. 2.1 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (risk assessment). Choose specially and sufficient risk assessment is made of:- The risks to all employees whilst they are working; The risks to all workers originating from companys operations; The recognition of the measures needed to follow with the applicable statutory conditions. These Risk Assessments will be examined at least yearly. Interpretation of Risks: Hazard or danger Hazard Material Risk involved 2.2 Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995(the Act). The aim of the Act is to provide for the health and safety of people employed in, engaged in or affected by industry [ Work cover: ISBN 978 1 ]. Specifically, the Act aims or objectives to: †¢ assure the health, safety and welfare of employees at work †¢ protect people at or near workplaces from risks to health and safety †¢ promote an occupational environment for employees that harmonize with their health and safety needs †¢ foster a co-operative, consultative relationship between employers and employees The Act covers employers, employees, self-employed persons, manufacturers, service providers, designers, importers, suppliers and installers [HSE : 2001]. 2.3 Workplace Health and Safety Regulations 1996. The function and purpose of regulations is to give details of requirements that must be observed in the workplace. Regulations are the second tier of legislation. While they are subordinate to the Act, they still represent legal requirements, and failure to comply will generally be an offence punishable by a fine. The Act broadly outlines the legal obligations employers and workers have to workplace health and safety. The Regulations set out goals for meeting these legal obligations and making workplaces safe. Employers and workers can tailor safety measures to the needs of individual workplaces provided the outcomes specified in the Regulations are achieved[ Work cover: ISBN 978 1 ]. Risk management is a key element of the Regulations. Other important issues outlined in the Regulations include the need to: †¢ communicate with all parties at the workplace, including health and safety committees or employees safety representatives and those responsible for managing workplaces particularly whenever any proposed change to a workplace is likely to affect health or safety †¢ keep records relating to a number of workplace matters †¢ make any relevant health and safety information available to workers. 2.4 Safety Representatives and Safety Committees Regulations 1977 Under the Act, the functions of the health and safety committee are to: †¢ Foster consultation and co-operation between employers and people working at the workplace †¢ Initiate, develop and implement measures that will ensure workplace health and safety †¢ Keep abreast of changes in standards of workplace health and safety †¢ Recommend to the employer that programs, measures and procedures about workplace health and safety are established, maintained and monitored †¢ Keep information provided by the employer about hazards that may arise at the workplace in a place where employees can access them Figure The law on consulting employees about health and safety in your Health and safety in Construction This section provides a brief outlines the main health and safety management requirements during a construction project by including and addressing the following project specifies [OGC: 2003]: Objectives, the key health and safety performance and success criteria during construction and for the finished asset. Background, the key health and safety drives ( such as the intention to achieve excellence as a client and to align the project with current national improvement campaigns. A business case that recognizes the need for client health and safety leadership and commitment Quality plans that measure health and safety performance during design, procurement and construction(including , where appropriate, facilities maintenance etc) Project organization, addressing responsibilities for the management of health ans safety risks as part of project governance. CONCLUSION A systematic and regular audit of Safety Systems and Performance can lead to significant improvements. There are certain laws and legislation are made in favor of workers and employee for their safety and there are so many committee and representative are assign to groups of worker under safety representatives. The main function of safety representatives to look into possible hazards and dangerous happening at the workplace (whether or not they are drawn to his attention by the employees he represents)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE U S ARMY Essay -- essays research papers

DEVELOPMENT OF THE U S ARMY Since its birth on 14 June 1775-over a year before the Declaration of Independence-the United States Army has played a vital role in the growth and development of the American nation. It won the new Republic's independence in an arduous eight-year struggle against Great Britain, at times providing the lone symbol of nationhood around which patriots could rally. During the Civil War it preserved the Union through four years of biter conflict that turned brother against brother. It has repeatedly defended United States against external threats, from the "second war of independence" with Great Britain in 1812 through the crusades that finally rid the world of the specters of Nazi totalitarianism, Japanese imperialism, and world communism. The defense of the nation has always been the Army's primary mission. From the beginning the Army has also been involved with internal improvements, natural disaster relief, economic assistance, domestic order, and a host of other contingenci es. Although these missions may not have always been those it would have chosen for itself, Army has drown great satisfaction from knowing that when the nation was in need, it answered the call. Over the past 225 years, the United States has grown from a loosely organized confederation of thirteen English colonies scattered along the Atlantic seaboard to a superpower whose influence reaches around the globe. The U.S. Army has contributed immeasurably to the rise of the American nation, first as the shield of the Republic during its vulnerable early years and later as means to project power in defense of American interests worldwide. The Army’s contributions, however, go far beyond the role of military force. Its ready availability as a source of disciplined and skilled personnel has made it an attractive option for American leaders confronted with a wide array of nonmilitary demands and crises. Adaptation to the latest technology is no new experience for the United States Army. Throughout the events described below, the Army has attempted to better accomplish missions and to save lives by harnessing newly developed capabilities. This innovation in turn has radically altered tactics, organization, and industrial relationships. The soldiers of the Revolutionary War Army went into battle with a great assortment of firearms, many of them personal and m... ...vements in equipment and the introduction of at least one revolutionary item, the helicopter. By the time of the Vietnam War the helicopter had come into its own, and ground combatants achieved whole new levels of tactical mobility, logistical sustainability, and fire support. Heliborne medical evacuation saved thousands of lives that otherwise would have been lost and set an example for expedient care that civilian society soon sought to emulate. Despite the pace of technical advance, the key ingredients in the Army’s formula for success remain the soldier and his or her leaders. In certain respects even more is demanded of modern soldiers than was demanded of their forebears. They must maintain and use increasingly complex equipment. They are more dispersed across an ever more dangerous battlefield, thus requiring more skill and initiative than ever from junior officers and NCOs. Now, as always, the success of the soldier is the truest possible measure of the success of the Army. By guaranting the soldier the most advanced technology, suitable doctrine, and ample resources available, the United States Army has always sought to accomplish its mission with a minimum loss of life.

Risk Taking Behaviour in Adolescence Essay -- Adolescent Behavior

Adolescence is a venerable and unstable time of adjustment in which a child transcends into adulthood (Casey, 2008). During adolescence there are examinable changes in various areas of life. These changes occur physically as the adolescent goes through puberty, as well as psychological changes where high emotional reactivity emerges, and social development is at its height (Casey, 2008). Adolescents are more likely than adults or children to engage in risky behaviour that can subsequently lead to death or illness by drunk driving, carrying weapons, using illegal drugs, and engaging in unprotected sex, which in turn can lead to STD’s and teenage pregnancies (Eaton, 2006). The prior is proof that adolescents do engage in risky behaviour. Through this essay we will explore the various theories of why risky behaviour is at its height during adolescence. An Examination of Adolescence During adolescence emotional reactivity is heightened, and the social environment is changing as adolescents spend more time with their peers than adults (Casey, 2008). To an adolescent, the value of positive information, as well as negative information may be exaggerated which leads to greater emotional reactivity and sensitivity during this growth period (Casey, 2008). This can heighten the incidence of addiction and the onset of psychological disorders (Casey, 2008). There are various theories that attempt to explain why adolescents engage in risky behaviour. One of these theories by Yurgelun-Todd stems from human adolescent brain development, and proposes that cognitive development during the adolescent period is associated with increasingly superior efficiency of cognitive control and affective modulation (Casey, 2008). This theory also suggest... ...odel since some of the studies done may not be accurate. For example, with concern to the study Casey’s discussed concerning delay of gratification study, there was too much variability. Their hunger levels prior to the study should have been recorded, as well as their favourite cookie type because these details may influence how likely the children are to control their impulses. But, overall this model did contribute greatly to the field of adolescent risk taking. Works Cited Casey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Hare, T. (2008). The adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 111–126. Eaton Reyna, V.F. and Rivers, S.E. (2008). Current theories of risk and rational decision making. Developmental Review, 28, 1–11. Steinberg, L. (2004). Risk taking in adolescence: What changes, and Why? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 51-58.

The Discovery Of Economy Essay -- essays research papers

It is a pristine tradition that much matters to a nation, when it comes to issues irrelevant to human development. Speaking in terms of reality, the economic boom of a nation is what human development all about. Now let us profoundly analyze what exactly is the economic boom of a nation. As we begin our analysis, it is highly important for the reader to be enlightened with the fact that it is necessary to think the right way if he has to understand this immensely valuable message. The reader will have to discredit all economic and political concepts and thoughts in considering the planet earth as a single nation and its people as just its citizens with no individual nationalities. Thinking this way alone can make this message more comprehending. Today everyone knows the fact that the world has, due to the advancement in human transportation and communication technology, virtually shrunk to a small global village. Much gossip is evident in the electronic media on the virtual currencies in circulation on the Internet. So it is clearly evident that it solely depends on the way we think, for which each single nation is a proof. Let us consider for example that if fifty states of the USA are divided into fifty nations, then fifty different currencies come into existence with different living standards in each nation. Formalities and barriers will have to be braved by the people as for the flow of people, goods and services from one state to the other. Bureaucratic interference will always remain whenever there is an exchange of business, trade or travel between any two nations from among the fifty. On the contrary if the fifty are again merged into a union of the USA, then there is no need for working out on policies, sovereignty , constitutional amendments, economy, GDP's, GNP's, exports and imports of the fifty states with each state as a separate nation. Similarly let us apply the concept to all the so-called countries of this world considering them to be a single nation at least in economic terms, if not socio-politically. Let us keep in mind the fact that the all the nations of the world, just for the purpose of serving their selfish national ends, have been committing blunders on the economy of this world. Because of the absurd and weird reason that we are socio-politically, culturally, lingually and in many other aspects different from each other, we h... ...0. A coke can in India may be Rs. 15 or more and if it is being bought by 10 million people per day then at Rs. 1 or 2, certainly 200 million people at least will buy it every day. The electricity and medical services must be free of cost and should be considered as a mandatory requirement for all the people of earth’s expanse. Let any form of government rule the world union’s so-called nations. Let us pave way to the economic development of the masses of this world, being irrespective of whether a nation is ruled by a military regime or democracy or any other form of Government. Let the penal code be the strictest of all human times. Let us value human or victim’s rights more than criminals’ rights. For some time the world will have to abandon all sporting events, and unnecessary re-search in space, cloning etc. and plan in a smart manner the smooth and speedy union of all nations of this world into a single nation. Let us make nations a single market for all businessmen on Earth’s land, and earth’s Union a home for the entire community of this world with a healthy, wealthy and hygienic environment, which is economically sustainable, viable, affordable, prosperous and livable.

Context reflects values Essay

Context is a clear reflection of the values of any era, especially in Shakespeare’s canonical play Hamlet. The events and characters in Hamlet embodies the historical context of shifting religions and political uncertainty that lead to a society imploding. Composed in the 1600s, the murder of a king and the encroachment of foreign power would have had particular resonance for the audience as there was an innate failed invasion of Britain by Spain and an attempted assassination in the Court of Queen Elizabeth I. Additionally, the character Hamlet in this Elizabethan era represents the uncertainty of Christian values and the Renaissance need for restoring the ordained hierarchy. Hamlet was composed in a time of great political uncertainty in English history in which the Queen Elizabeth I had withstood an assassination attempt, a foiled uprising and a failed invasion by Spain. The events of Hamlet , in which a King is murdered and a country ultimately forfeited to foreign power, would have had particular resonance for an Elizabethan audience. This disorder can be seen through the garden imagery woven through the play: â€Å"unweeded garden in two months dead†. The disorder of the country is also seen through the incongruity of Gertrude and Claudius’s reunion: â€Å"Funeral bak’t meals are coldly furnished forth the marriage tables† The period in which Shakespeare wrote was one of explosive growth in knowledge. The Renaissance has seen a revival of Classical learning (reflected in references to Vigil in Hamlet), world exploration was challenged and revolutionising peoples’ conceptions of the universe with Ptolemaic heliocentric (sun-centered) model. Though Hamlet is an appropriation of a story told by Saxo Grammaticus, the ‘Revenge Tragedy’ prototype of Thomas Kyd and the Senecan Tragedy, Shakespeare transcends other tragedies by creating a protagonist that is more complex as Hamlet is a revenge hero that is reluctant to avenge. Through his inner conflict arising from his tragic flaw- procrastination, Hamlet represents the dichotomy of Christian values and the Renaissance need for order in the Elizabethan era. This conflict is crystallised in the Prayer Scene (III,iii)  when Hamlet is passing through to his mother’s room when he comes upon the kneeling Claudius and recognises that he has an opportunity to kill him. He decides not to since, he reasons, if he kills his uncle at prayer Claudius will go to heaven and not to hell – that would be poor revenge. However, according to A.C. Bradley, this is Hamlet’s fatal flaw – procrastination as Hamlet tries to convince himself that this is his duty: â€Å"Why, this is hire and salary, not revenge†, yet is moral code prevents him from avenging. To this point, the audience is convinced that even if Hamlet was to kill Claudius at prayer, Claudius would not go to heaven like what Hamlet had thought because of Claudius’s ironic couplet: â€Å"My words fly up, my thought remain below/ Words without thought never to heaven go†. Hamlet’s conflict is also caused by his humanitarian self, denoted through his soliloquies and paralleling the age of enlightenment. In his soliloquy, he debates the medieval doctrines that demand for a son to absolve his father’s ‘murder’ with conflicting Christianity. In a bitter tone, his despair is denoted through self-laceration: â€Å"lecherous, kindles villain†. Yet this is again an excuse for procrastinating as his frustration at ‘thought’ prevails over any kind of ‘resolution’. In conclusion, it is obvious that the values of any era are reflected through its context. The events and characters in Hamlet mirrors the innate instability and religious upheaval of the 1600s.

King Charles and the Power Struggles after the Battle of Edgehill

England- being the site of industrial revolution and subjected to several wars can be considered as more developed economically and politically. Alongside with these developments, people in England had established the Parliament as a response to the growing need of the people for an organized society apart from the ruling of the monarchy at the time. However, the decline in the power of the monarchy including that of King Charles and the rise in the power of the parliament were not without struggles.The Battle of Edgehill characterized the classic battle for power between the Parliament and the monarchy (King Charles) in their bid to show who has the most political power in England. Characteristically, the Battle of Edgehill is a power struggle between the Parliament or democracy and King Charles and the monarchy. At the time when there is an increasing acceptance and power accorded to the Parliament, the question has been raised on who can appropriate and approve funds- the King or the Parliament.This being the root cause of the Battle of Edgehill and the four (4) years that followed after an indecisive outcome of the war had been studied from the point of view of political scientists and sociologists. This paper on the other hand, seeks to provide an evaluation on the significance of the Battle of Edgehill on the power struggles of King Charles and the Parliament after the years that followed. It can be recalled that while the way was opened for King Charles' troops, no victor emerged in the war.The vagueness of the result then further pushed the power struggle and hence, put England at the theme of monarchy vs Parliament. Power Struggle: King Charles vs. The Parliament and the Battle of Edgehill The triggering factor in the Battle of Edgehill has been the conflict on who would determine the kind of rule that England would be governed with. According to the side of the Parliaments, it is they who should decide on this matter as they have the mandate of the pe ople. On the other hand, the monarchy under King Charles claimed that it is the monarchy with the divine provision who should rule England on their discretion.An important element in this disagreement is the discernment on who should appropriate funds and how to allocate them. For King Charles, the monarchy has the sole authority to use funds on their discretion; on the other hand, the parliament asserts that they have the right to deny and appropriate funds from the crown. Hence, the inability of the two opposing forces to reach an agreement precluded the Battle of Edgehill and the English Civil War. Prior to the start of the war, both sides had acknowledged and prepared for the inevitability of war.King Charles took charge of the Royal Army with about 13,000 forces together with Prince Rupert of Rhine whereas, the Parliament headed by the Earl of Essex commanded about 14,000-15,000 military men. Before the war broke, England has been divided into areas that support the Parliament and the monarchy. For instance, Wales had been considered to be the territory of King Charles whereas Parliament has control of Essex and the Midlands. The predictability of the war made the two opposing sides prepare for it. On the side of King Charles, he handed out the Commissions of Array compelling the Lords of each county to prepare the royal army.On the other hand, the Parliament signed the Militia Ordinance in order to command England's trained military personnel. The process of accumulating all the needed armed men took a few months on both sides as it was not easy to assimilate the troops necessary for battle. After Charles secured the necessary weaponry for war, he moved to Shrewsbury in order to meet up with the troops coming from Wales. On the other hand, the Earl of Essex with directives coming from the Parliament assimilated a slightly large troop in Northampton and then went to Worcester.Prior to the Battle of Edgehill, the strength of each force was tested in the Ba ttle of Powick Bridge where the Royal Army defeated the Parliament army. En route to its success, King Charles planned to march towards the center of power in England- London in order to seize power and defeat the Parliament Army. En route to London, both troops were unaware as to the location of their enemies. On their way to London, the Royal Army of King Charles had an encounter with the Parliament Army at Banbury who then sought help from the Warwick Castle. By the evening of October 22, the Parliament Army went to rescue its troops in Kineton.In October 23, 1642 by the orders of King Charles, the Royal Army trooped to Edgehill because of the threat of the Parliament Army. From there, the battle of Edgehill occurred. Scholars assert that the Royal Army was more trained, young and were predominantly gentlemen whereas the Parliament Army were experienced but are older and with less armory than the enemy(Evans, 2005). While the Royal Army was in place of the battle earlier than the Parliament Army, the Royal Army members are largely more inexperienced and when it came to foot battle, the Parliament army had the upper hand.However, due to the tactical and strategy of scattering the Royal Army, the Essex or the Parliament Army succumbed and they withdrew from the battle. Both sides stayed and camped on Edgehill for the night. What is surprising about the battle is that King Charles had not expected that the battle would have so many casualties not only on their side but also on the other camp. The unwillingness of both sides to resume battle had made some scholars declare the battle to be a draw while others assert that it was the Royal Army under King Charles who won the fight.However, King Charles was unable to patronize and seize the victory and improve his power position. Hence, the power struggle between the monarchy and the parliament went on for years. Analysis Inordinately, the Battle of Edgehill signalled the six year war that constituted the English C ivil Wars from 1642-1648. However, it should be noted that the Battle of Edgehill was not a one-time spontaneous battle but a series of disagreements between the Parliament and the monarchy on who should rule England. Hence, the lack of resolution of the battle had pushed for more wars.Consequently, it is not only the war that made the post Battle of Edgehill continues but rather the political power struggle that constituted after it had pushed for more wars in order to find resolution. Hence, the Battle of Edgehill had exposed more issues to be confronted leading for more civil wars in England. First, the power struggle between King Charles and the monarchy versus the Parliament and Oliver Cromwell (leader of the Parliamentary Army) stems from the very nature of the legitimacy of their rule. The question posited is that â€Å"who should rule England, the monarchy or the Parliament?â€Å". The long dominance of the monarchy in England ended in the Industrial Revolution when the Pa rliament was formed in response to the growing need of the people to be represented and reform the political and economic policies in the society. Add to this, the growing discontent on the rule of the monarchy and its inability to solve poverty and unemployment issues were still prevalent in the English Civil War. This was one of the primary issues why despite the century long rule of the monarchy, several states in England had supported the Parliament in their bid to out rule King Charles.On the other hand, counties such as Wales were still loyal to the monarchy and supported King Charles. Hence, the question remained after the Battle of Edgehill. King Charles whose power emanates from the Divine Rights of Kings and hence, its primary supporters were the Catholic Church and the Pope. From this power, Parliament seeking to end his arbitrary practices and refuse to be given the financial resources had a temporary agreement until King Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629 in order to pursue his goals of religious orthodoxy- Catholicism for all of the people of England.The end of the Battle of Edgehill did not end this power struggle. For instance, King Charles after the battle continued to dominate the west, southwest and north parts of England whereas the Parliament had Eas Anglia, Southeast and London as its territory. The division of the people and the question of who should rule them are therefore still prevalent after the Battle of Edgehill. Second, King Charles and the Parliament continued to rally people to support their sides even after the battle. Parliament retained the support of the army despite the seeming victory of King Charles in the post Battle of Edgehill era.Hence, lacking the necessary resources to put up his own army, King Charles was in shambles particularly because Parliament was preparing for another civil war. For instance, the Parliament allied themselves with the Scottish Presbyterian in 1643, giving the Parliament the upper hand in te rms of army and military power. Consequently, with the institution of the New Model Army, training that was lacking among the Parliamentary Army in the Battle of Edgehill was instituted in order to strengthen the Parliament troops.Thus, the struggle of power continued with King Charles and the Parliament. Third, King Charles continued to struggle with the Parliament by aligning the monarchy with Scottish Army. By this time, King Charles still considers the monarchy as the stable force that counters the instability of the parliamentary. Consequently, King Charles saw the opportunity to gain back the power when the Parliament was divided by differences between Presbyterians and the Independents. However, the war waged by Charles against the Parliament failed with the victory of Cromwell in Preston by 1648.Finally, the power struggle was ended by the Parliament when it sentenced King Charles to death in 1649 by beheading him in the Banqueting House in Whitehall, London. The decision by the Parliament rested on the premise that King Charles still holds power over some of the population in England and hence, it cannot effectively establish its power if he is still alive. However, the aspirations of the Parliament to end the Civil War by ending the life of King Charles did not succeed (Dix, 1992). England will go on for more wars concerning the power struggle between the monarchy and the Parliament.Each of these entities asserts that they are the ones who are representing the stability of England by enforcing the constitutional and social rules. Additionally, the legacy that was left by King Charles was carried on by supporters of monarchy. On the other hand, the struggle for power by the Parliament continues. King Charles death marked the beginning of another round of struggle. For the period surrounding the trial, the most powerful theme is the exaltation of form over substance: The army and its Puritan allies believed they could not execute Charles without appear ing to follow acceptable legal procedure (Roberts and Tincey, 2001).The very idea of trying a king must have appalled English citizens. They were contemplating impeaching not just the constitutional head of government, but also a hereditary monarch, who, some believed, could heal with his touch. The Cromwellians tried to overcome objections by disposing of the King through the formal legal process of a trial. After Cromwell's death, the power of the Parliament was weakened and the restoration of the monarchy was underway. However, problems concerning the emancipation of the Catholics as well as the Catholic succession had the Parliament's disapproval again.Hence, after James II fled, the Parliament seeking to reinstate the monarchy, declared William and Mary the King and Queen. From thereon, the Declaration of Rights that changed the power of the monarchy up to this day was declared. This change resulted to the delegation of power to the monarchy as merely symbolic in nature. This i mplies that legislative power and matters of the state would be the sole domain of the Parliament while the monarchy which once held power indiscriminately was relegated to the sidelines and became the head of state- a symbolic position that is relevant to the history of England.Conclusion History reveals that conflict between the political concepts of monarchy and Parliamentarism or of a Republic is fairly common. This is true in the case of King Charles and the Parliament in the Battle of Edgehill. Prior to the Battle of Edgehill, King Charles had been exposed to several power struggles that led him to the abolition of the Parliament. These acts were deemed to be indiscriminate particularly when he increased the taxes of the people and entered into wars that England has no use of.Hence, the rise in power of the Parliament was a direct result of the actions of Charles. After the Battle of Edgehill, the series of English Civil Wars follows. The same theme ensued: who holds the power to rule England? The answer was not resolved in the Battle of Edgewood and the years later would result to more casualties and wars and power struggles between the monarchy and the Parliament. However, the tactical alliance made by the Parliament secured its power over King Charles who succumbed to the Parliament.The inability of King Charles and the Parliament to enter into a common ground has historically scarred the country- but this can be considered as a necessary struggle in order to define and redefine what England is now. First, the power struggle marked the decline of the monarchy and the Divine Power of Kings and the rise of republics ruled by the people and for the people. Second, the insistence of King Charles of religious orthodoxy was unwarranted and gained him more enemies than supporters. Third, it made leaders accountable for their actions.While King Charles rested on his Divine Power, the people at the time were increasingly aware of their own power as well. The i nability of the King to address poverty and unemployment decreased their legitimacy and claim to power. Fourth, the Parliament together with Enlightenment was able to educate and introduce the people to the concepts of freedom, democracy and rule of the people. While both parties had struggled for power, their goal was the same: to uphold England. However, the means by which they have accomplished this was a result of years of power struggles of which lives were sacrificed.However, the resolution via the separation of monarchy as symbolic in nature (head of state) and the Parliament who would run the government was the good result of this political struggle. References Dix, P. (1992) The Ghosts of Edgehill, Leamington Spa, Peter Dix Press. Evans, R. (2005) The ‘Loyal Unknown Soldier': Wales and the English Civil War Robin Evans Assesses the Contribution of the Welsh to the Troubles of 1642-49. History Review. 53(1): 23-29. Roberts, K and Tincey, J. (2001) Edgehill 1642 : first battle of the English Civil War, Oxford : Osprey Military.

1984 – Technology in Todays Soceity

Not many people are fans of being excessively supervised and observed. From an 11 year old boy being observed in the park by his grandparents, to a student sitting in class being observed by the teacher during examination. Knowing that you are constantly under surveillance can be very intimidating. Right through history, the intensity of government regulations have altered from low down to sky-scraping. The novel 1984, written by George Orwell consistent of a very dictatorial government. In this fictional commentary novel, George Orwell predicts the future where technology and the power given to the government will reduce privacy in everyone’s day to day life. Today’s society is majorly impacted by the rapid development of technology; in the novel George Orwell had used technology as an example of lack of privacy. To begin with, our advanced technology has reached such an extent that it is very straightforward for the government to figure out everything about us from our past including, our previous vacation, were we live, where we attended school or even last time we made a purchase through our debit or credit. To gain access into a person’s life the government has issued every citizen a social insurance number, this card contains a person’s entire record of everything that they have done in the country. This is related to what George Orwell had expressed in his novel, the government in the novel is being referred to the big brother. In the novel the big brother kept watch over every step that was done by the humans, there was even a sign which said â€Å"big brother is watching you,† this is the same as our government now since most things we do are being watched or even listened to. Another example of this would be the use of telescreens in the novel. The telescreens previewed everybody’s room in the building; therefore if any movement or discussion going on will not be private, â€Å"Any sound Winston made, above the level of a very low whisper, would be picked up by it†. This is now similar to today’s surveillance cameras; although this novel was written in 1948 the first surveillance camera had been invented in 1965. Since then the world had become more advanced than ever before. Cameras are now put up almost everywhere in; business offices, convenience store, apartment buildings, intersections, even all age schools. In the novel the author essentially points out that the future will hold no privacy and telescreens. phone calls, emails, texting are examples of telescreens since they can be accessed by the government authorities anytime. In conclusion, the novel 1984, is a fiction although what George Orwell tried illustrating was us humans are going head over heel with technology which is giving the government power. Some events that occurred in his novel have actually accrued and while he was writing this novel it was all a prediction for the future because some things he mentioned did not exist in that time period.

American Popular Culture Essay

American popular culture has brought entertainment to many for the past two centuries. However, very little people know the extent to which American popular culture has shaped the historical relationship between marginalized social groups and dominate American society. Traditionally, the term popular culture has denoted the education level and general â€Å"cultural-ness† of the lower classes, as opposed to the â€Å"official culture† and higher education emanated by the dominant classes. This separation of upper class and lower class became even more pronounced towards the end of the 19th century. At the end of the 19th century the was a strong need for one to express their intellectualism as well as further their education in order to gain a higher status in society. Due to the need to denote other races, we have the arrival of black face minstrelsy in American popular culture, which allowed for inferior white races such as the Jewish of Irish to gain approval from the dominate white culture. However, black face minstrelsy also forced African Americans further into segregation from American society. During the period of Modernity from 1870 to 1930, there was a strong fascination with the Wild West and Manifest Destiny. During this time there was the formation of the Boy Scouts, which was the true depiction of what Americans thought it was like to be Native American. Due to irrational fears and anxieties, American popular culture took comfort in â€Å"playing Indian† because it allowed them to express these worries in American mainstream media. From the end of World War I, following major cultural and social changes brought by mass media innovations, the meaning of popular culture began to overlap with those of mass culture, media culture, and culture for mass consumption. Because of World War II, many women were put to work in order to fill the jobs of the men at war allowing them to gain a sense of independence. However, other events in history such as Vaudeville, and the idea of the New Woman also allowed women to gain a sense of power during the 19th century with pioneers such as Sarah Bernhardt. American popular culture was the gender revolutions biggest supporter as well as its biggest critic. Throughout American history, popular culture has been an entry way for marginal social groups into the political, economic, and social mainstream of American society. With Irish and Jewish males finally being accepted by dominate white society through the performance of black face minstrelsy as well as women being able to control their own being through expression in Vaudeville. However, while these minorities are able to further their social hierarchy through performance, African Americans and Native Americans were often exploited as a way of making profit. While American popular culture has its positive social constructions, I believe the negative effects that American popular culture has had on the historical relationship between marginal social groups and American society has caused too much damage to repair. Through acts such as the minstrelsy shows, the Buffalo Bill Show as well as films and plays of the time, minorities are depicted in a subordinate role to the Anglo-Saxon male. These acts within popular culture spilled over onto American society and allowed for the prejudice and racism of the 19th and 20th century. The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American popular culture entertainment consisting of comedy skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performed by white people in blackface. Blackface was when a White American would paint their face with black makeup and exaggerate their lips and being to impersonate an African American male. Minstrel shows caricatured black people as poor, lazy, dim-witted, buffoonish, happy-go-lucky and violent. The minstrel show began with brief parodies and comic entr’actes in the early 1830s and emerged as a full-fledged form of mass entertainment in the next decade. In 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national art of the time, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience. Minstrel songs and sketches featured several run-of-the-mill characters; the slave and the dandy in nice clothes quickly began the crowd favorites. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench, and the black soldier. Minstrel performers claimed that their songs and dances were authentically â€Å"black†, although the extent of the black influence remains debatable. The depictions of African Americans as these â€Å"token† characters, allowed for the ignorance of White America to be validated through the representation of minorities through stereotypes. African Americans were seen as bumbling fools who couldn’t take care of themselves and needed a White master to explain the world to their simple minds. African Americans were seen as people who needed someone to represent them; they needed someone with power to gain control of an â€Å"untamed† culture. A certain version of a black identity can be created through things like the minstrel show and other forms of popular culture, and that understanding has led to material practices like racial segregation and social inequality and educational deprivation. Americans use to believe that race could be distinguished biologically and that different ethnicities had different DNA coding than others. American popular culture is how most people learn about other identities and allowed them to understand the practices of another culture. As Professor Avila stated in lecture â€Å"the minstrel show is one of the sites in history where this could be found. The 19th century was a time where people saw racial difference and were terrified by it. The existence of slavery and its uncertain future promoted a mixed range of responses by Americans and they were acted in a variety of ways† (Avila Lecture January 15th 2013). The minstrel shows are a perfect example of how White Americans acted out their own prejudice to enact their own culture in 19th and 20th century America. The Minstrel performers were often men of Jewish or Irish descent, which were two groups of people who were discriminated against even though they were White. Often, Jewish and Irish men took comfort in dressing up in Blackface for the minstrel shows because it allowed them to relate to the audience as well as the character they are portraying. These performers used minstrelsy as a platform to gain social hierarchy in American popular culture by bringing comic relief to a working class audience. Also, they often were able to finally express themselves once they put the Blackface make-up on because it served as a mask which hid their actual identity from the audience. These minorities were able to use their performances to gain acceptance from the dominant White American society. However, this upward social mobility came at a large price for African Americans during the 19th century. The depiction of African Americans as fools or grime savages in the minstrel show furthered the discrimination and stereotypes upheld by Anglo-Americans. Minstrels were not shifty in their theft of black cultural expressions and practices. The performers depicted these expressions quite brazenly, acknowledging and emphasizing the speeches and songs they created. At the same time, black face minstrels were the first self-conscious white entertainers in the world. While they told themselves they were only playing the role of an African American in American society, they often found their life struggles were very similar to those of the characters they portrayed. This mutual discrimination by dominant White America, allowed for African Americans and the White Americans portraying them in minstrel shows to bridge a formerly segregated gap in American society. Blackface minstrelsy was the first distinctly American theatrical form, and deeply rooted in American popular culture. In the 1830s and 1840s, it was at the core of the rise of an American music industry, and for several decades it provided the lens through which white America saw black America. On the one hand, it had strong racist aspects and furthered discrimination of minorities in America; on the other, it afforded white Americans a singular and broad awareness of what some whites of the time, considered significant aspects of black-American culture to be. Although the minstrel shows were extremely popular, being â€Å"consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group†, they were also extremely controversial. Racial integrationists decried them as falsely showing happy slaves while at the same time making fun of them; segregationists thought such shows were â€Å"disrespectful† of social norms, portrayed runaway slaves with sympathy and would undermine the southerners’ â€Å"peculiar institution†. With Irish, German, Polish, Italian, Russian-Jews, and Native stock within the audience, the minstrel show provided a relational model by which those in audiences could unite in whiteness. And although the minstrel show sometimes did highlight interethnic diversities, they all could share in this particular joke – the laziness and stupidity of black people. African Americans were not the only minority group to suffer social, political and economic discrimination during the late 19th century and early 20th century. Native Americans who are the rightful owners of our beautiful land have faced harsh and cruel discrimination from dominant White American society. Throughout early American history, there was a strong push for Manifest Destiny, or the wide held belief that American settlers were destined to expand throughout the continent. This ideology was upheld by most Americans because they believed that God had told them it was their destiny to settle on this land. Due to the fact that they believed it was their destiny, the settlers took little to no pity on the people who already inhabited the land they were seizing. The concept of Western expansion seemed to be on the forefront of every Americans mind during the late 19th century, allowing for new fears and anxieties to form about Native Americans. With leisure time becoming a strong part of American culture, there became a strong pull to produce shows to entertain the masses after a hard day’s work. Showmen such as William F. Cody began to produce shows like the Buffalo Bill show, which featured relations between cowboys and Indians. For 23 years, the show featured a skit called â€Å"attack on setter’s cabin† as the grand finale show. This skit would start by showing a frontier home which was set on fire by savages, each time the encircling group of Indians came close to the cabin, Buffalo Bill would ride out on his horse to the rescue and save the day. The common theme of the Buffalo Bill show was to reinforce the heroic image of the Cowboy who expanded the land from sea to shining sea, saving the lives of White Americans and killing the enemies who stopped their destiny. While William F. Cody would sometimes depict a Native American in some of the skits, he was often the heroic cowboy everybody was waiting to see. However, working as a Native American in the production of the Buffalo Bill show had its upside. William F. Cody did not adhere to government demands as often fought to resist them to gain rights for his employees. One example of his resistance is allowing his Native American actors to keep their long hair instead of assimilating to dominate society like the government demanded. Also, the Native Americans in the Buffalo Bill show were offered a unique opportunity that many minorities didn’t have during the 19th century in America. Cody offered the Native Americans the chance to travel the country and make an income that was sizable. Taking part in these reenactments of American history also allowed for Native Americans to hold onto a sliver of their culture in a society who is try to diminish their practices. However, the overall goal of the Buffalo Bill show was not to inform the public about the cultural and social practices of Native Americans, but rather a remedy for the fantasies and fears that flooded American society during the late 19th century As stated by professor Avila â€Å"the image of the Indian has this degree of symbolic flexibility to be able to contain the projected fantasies and anxieties of Native Americans† (Avila, Lecture, January 29th 2013). The onslaught of Modernity challenged the concept of identity for everyone in America. The anxieties of the upper class about a minority revolt were enhanced by the acceleration of modernity (Lawrence, American Culture). Modernity brought a deep sense of transformation from an old world order to a new society. â€Å"However, this allowed for the objectification of people and products alike, with things becoming abstract commodities, like people becoming cogs in a machine, rather than being an independent human† (Nasaw, Going Out). Suddenly during the late 19th century there was a strive for authenticity, or a culturally-constructed category created in opposition to a perceived state of inauthenticity; a way to imagine and idealize the real, the traditional, and the organic in opposition to the perceived inauthenticity of modern commercial life. Inauthenticity was beginning to plague the youth of America and there was a strong push toward needing to be authentic. One of the urban responses about the corruption of youth was the invention of boy scouts, which wanted to introduce frontier experiences to youth, with an emphasis on scouting, camping, exercise, and a wholesome relationship with nature. The concept of the Boy Scouts takes the idea of â€Å"playing Indian† to its fullest extent. The actual image of the Indian was important to the Boy Scouts understanding of nature and the things that inhabit it. The Boy Scouts idealized the image of a Native American because it represented the human removed from modern life, who is retaining virtues from nature by living in it. White Americans use â€Å"playing Indian† as a way of projecting their fears and anxieties about the unknown onto the lives of Native Americans. Although it is not a strong point of the Buffalo Bill show, William F. Cody was known for his performances as he heroic cowboy, but he sometimes depicted the â€Å"Indian† in some of his skits. The audience at the shows seemed to like when the White actor would dress up as Native Americans, because they felt like they could connect better with that actor and his struggles. The idea of â€Å"playing Indian† in American popular culture can be seen both negatively and positively. Unfortunately, â€Å"playing Indian† led to the development of new stereotypes and anxieties, as well as reinforced old stereotypes about Native Americans. This caused a lot of tension and fear between the White settlers and the Native inhabitants of the land. On the other hand, â€Å"playing Indian† allowed for a previously intolerant society to gain a better understanding of the cultures and societies around them. Through experimenting with â€Å"playing Indian† American popular culture has both hampered the historical relationship between marginalized social group and American dominate society as well as strengthened the bond between two previously segregated groups. The American concepts of Manifest Destiny and Western expansion created many fears and anxieties for the White settlers of the land. After the closing of the frontier in 1890, Americans began to face new anxieties that European settlers would come from all parts of Europe and demolish the democracy that America had worked so hard to create. We can accredit most of the need in America for White Americans to portray themselves as Indians to the concept of Modernization. With Modernization came the invention of the railroads and the automobile which gave a stronger push toward urbanization. White Americans felt the need to seek simpler times like they had before industrialization and modernization took their course on American popular culture. Throughout American popular culture, there has always been a need to enforce a social hierarchy to make sure that minority groups don’t gain any power. This has proven to be true throughout America history with different racial groups, but minorities do not stop at race. During the 19th and 20th century, women were seen an inferior to men in America simply because they are a different gender. The concept of gender identities is often visited in American popular culture. In lecture, we have discussed how gender roles play out in public spheres of the modern city such as dance halls where women were given freedom to dance and the creation of department stores which gave women the option to work and be part of something outside the home. However, prior to the mid-19th century, women were meant to adhere to tradition gender roles placed on them by society. The rise of the theater and vaudeville house, between 1820s and the 1900s, allowed for popular theater to emerge in the conversation of sexual identities. The female performers in Vaudeville became the agents and metaphors for ancient social roles. This was the era associated with the â€Å"new woman†, who became perceived by the public eye as non-traditional. The new woman was both a social reality, as depicted by Sarah Bernhardt and a cultural concept, as shown by the feminist revolution. It was coined at the end of the century, and described a woman changing her public behavior and adopting new roles within a previously bias society. At the turn of the 20th century, American had a new league of ambitious, educated women who often put off or refused marriage, and dedicated themselves to political causes and social reforms – these women were part of what was labeled as the new woman of the 20th century. By the time of World War I, women demanded political and economic equality with men. Most historians have seen the rise of the political women, but particularly in urban slices of society, an important venue of acceptance was seen. Sarah Bernhardt embodies this idea of the â€Å"new woman†, or a woman who doesn’t see her gender as a limitation to her life. Sarah Bernhardt formed her own theater company, and she was the first actor to tour on an international circuit. She often played the roles of women, many of which were familiar to American audiences. She also accredited for pioneering the form of the woman torn between power hungry aggressions and passive submissions. Onstage, she was usually very dramatic and could perform hysteria without shame, which was usually considered not ladylike. She caused many scandals by playing the roles of men in her plays, like in 1899 where she played the role of Hamlet. She upstaged men performing alongside her, jumping across masculine and feminine roles at the same time, blurring the lines between men and women, and blurring the line between a bad woman and a good woman. Whatever the case, her personality always dominated the characters she played. â€Å"She had an immodest presence and was known for shameless and bold publicity stunts. She could seize the possibilities for self-construction afforded by mass culture and spectacle† (Kasson, Amusing the Millions). She invented the farewell tour, and each tour was loaded with drama and tears. She did this to heighten a dramatic sense of finality, and was a master of advanced publicity and that of her own self-image. She was in control of her own self-image, not unlike women promoted by PT Barnum. Unlike Jenny Lin, Bernhardt called the shots for her performances, and that image was that of a high-strung and egotistic person. She took ownership of her public image, and though she was adored, she was criticized by males for being too unladylike. This could have suggested gender confusion at the time. Nonetheless, she contributes to the large visibility of women, and showed how women could change the terms with public culture. This created new examples of women that were willing to stand for their rights by asserting their demands for political equality. In contrast to the Bernhardt image, there were images in the 20th century American popular culture, which reinforced women as ornaments which were to be produced and handled by men. The creation of the chorus line gave birth to a new type of objectification. The amusement of the line resided with the ability for women who were the entire same image to show their ability to synchronize and choreograph their movements together. The line symbolized the application of the principles of scientific management to mass entertainment. These women who danced in the line all looked the same and held the same facial feature throughout the show almost as if they were wound up robots with someone controlling their every move. The idea is to synchronize limbs and bodies to a series and different steps, and in turn it reflects a faith into human engineering as entertainment. The chorus line was referred to a small army of femininity where women worked rigorously into being part of the crowd, and not an individual. They are parts of a whole, and are theatrically useless when they are separated from each other. They were displays of mechanical awareness, and that also broke the body to eroticize particular parts of the body, exposing these previously well hidden body parts to the public gaze. Historians argue that the chorus line is a perfect example of how men view women within a society; they are just pieces of a machine waiting to comply with a strong males command. These two different types of women that emerged in the 19th and 20th century in America show the strong influence that males had over women during this time period. The â€Å"new woman† was a rebellion against traditional gender roles, while the chorus line depicted a submissive woman who needs male guidance. Throughout 19th and 20th century American popular culture, there has been a lot of discrimination towards this idea of the â€Å"outsider†. In the minstrel show the outside is shown as an African-American male and the â€Å"insider† is the White family who paid to see the show. The creation of The Buffalo Bill show painted Native Americans as the â€Å"outsiders†, even though they inhabited the land before Americans even got here. Finally, American popular culture allowed for women to be depicted as the â€Å"outsider† and males to be presented as the â€Å"insiders†. However, even though these tragedies plague American popular culture minorities still find ways of resistance. Whether it be through Irish and Jewish culturally subordinate groups depicting the stereotypes of another minority to try to fit into mainstream American, or women like Sarah Bernhardt who don’t set limitations to their ambitions due to their gender, American counter culture has always found a way to strike back and its oppressor. I believe that American popular culture has allowed naive Americans to get a better perspective of the hardships faced every day by someone who is considered a â€Å"second class citizen†. American popular culture as both provided a gateway for minorities to fit into modern American society, as well as crumbled any hope for a sensitive bridging of gaps between social, political or racial groups within America. Works Cited Kasson, John. Amusing the Millions: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century. Hill and Wang; First Edition edition, 1978. Print. Levine, Lawrence, â€Å"American Culture and the Great Depression,† The Unpredictable Past: Explorations in American Cultural History Oxford University Press, 1993. Print. Nasaw, David, and . Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements. Harvard University Press, 1999. Print.